Selfless or Self-Serving?

I. Introduction

An envelope arrives at a university's development office. Inside, there is a check for a large sum of money earmarked for a scholarship fund. There is no return address. This act of generosity poses the question: "Why would someone do this, for no recognition?". This act is categorized as prosocial behavior, or behavior that benefits other people and society as a whole. There are two widely discussed motivations for prosocial behavior, known as altruism and egoism. 

Altruism refers to actions motivated out of concern for others' well-being, often at a personal cost. Typically, these actions are done with no wish for recognition by the doer. In contrast,  egoism refers to the belief that all actions, even selfless ones, are ultimately motivated by self-interest. This post will discuss examples of purely altruistic and egoistic behavior and highlight the nuances of both. Consideration will also be given to psychological and philosophical perspectives. 

II. Altruism

A small, everyday act of altruism could involve leaving a small note or gift for someone anonymously.  In this example, the anonymity seems to be a major component of what is considered an altruistic act. 

These acts have many benefits for society. One clear benefit is an increased sense of empathy within communities. The heightened sense of compassion and understanding of others' needs can produce a sense of social cohesion among people. While altruism does not demand reciprocity, it does inspire waves of good will among people. Those who have been helped are more likely to help others. Thus, acts of altruism can act as a catalyst to addressing societal problems in many instances. 

Philosophers throughout history have advocated for altruism. A prominent example is Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative. This instructs us to act according to principles that could be universally applied and to avoid treating people as means to an end. It is a way to think about what is fair and right in every situation. While the categorical imperative is not directly about altruism in the sense of promoting selfless acts, it does provide a strong foundation for altruistic behavior. 

Beyond benefiting others, altruistic acts satisfy those who engage in them.  Acts of kindness release neurochemicals like oxytocin, which is associated with well-being and happiness. Similarly, individuals who engage in altruistic acts report a greater sense of purpose and fulfillment in their lives. These reasons may make it easier to understand why the idea of egoism exists. 

III. Egoism

Egoism has many dimensions. The introduction discusses the definition of psychological egoism.. However, scholars widely discuss rational and ethical egoism as other forms of egoism. We will consider psychological egoism for this post. 

Someone could offer an egoistic interpretation for seemingly any altruistic act. Consider, for instance, the anonymous donor. While the identity of the donor won't be made widely known, the donor knows what they've done. They feel the satisfaction of knowing they've done something that makes them feel virtuous. This act of giving could also reinforce their self-image, because people tend to act in ways that are in accordance with their self-perception. 

The philosopher Thomas Hobbes is a key figure in the development of psychological egoism. He believed that people are largely driven by self-preservation and making themselves happy. For this reason, Hobbes believed no selfless act exists; an underlying expectation always motivates action. This idea of an "underlying motivation" allows us to discuss another concept: reciprocal altruism. 

Evolutionary biology offers a perspective called reciprocal altruism, which describes situations where an individual or creature performs an altruistic act, expecting repayment in the future. Engaging in this practice offers an advantage, as it ultimately promotes enhanced survival and reproductive success, thus furthering the species. Like other species, we can assume humans engaged in this behavior and continue to do so today. 

Now that egoism and altruism have been discussed, attention will be briefly turned to the interaction of both ideas.

IV. Middle Ground 

The line between egoism and altruism blurs, as it does when we consider any human motivation. Determining the primary motivator behind any behavior remains complex and multifaceted, perhaps even impossible. Integrating both ideas may be the best solution to this debate. Genuine care for others and self-satisfaction likely contribute to any helping behavior. In the end, doing good by others and yourself is what matters most. 

V. Conclusion

Altruism and egoism were defined and explored as motivators of prosocial behavior. Altruism involves actions driven by a selfless concern for others' well-being, while egoism posits that all actions are ultimately self-interested. Rather than viewing egoism and altruism as separate ideas, acknowledging their coexistence may offer a more realistic understanding of why we help others. In the end, doing good by others and yourself is most important.